January 29, 2018

James Sowell, director of the Georgia Tech Observatory, has good and bad news for those wanting to watch Wednesday’s total lunar eclipse.

“The good news is that this event can be safely seen with the naked eye. No eye protection is needed,” Sowell says, referring to the memorable Aug. 21, 2017, total solar eclipse, which drew thousands to Tech Green on the first day of classes last year. “Eclipses are great visual experiences.”

They are — when you can actually see them, that is. The bad news from Sowell is that Wednesday’s moments of totality will be hidden from the Tech community. “The Earth’s shadow will start crossing the moon about 6:48 a.m. EST. The moon sets at 7:30 a.m.  We can see partial aspects of the eclipse, but unfortunately, we will not get to see any of the totality.”

For those planning to rise early to see what they can of the lunar eclipse, Wednesday morning’s forecast calls for clear skies, says Sowell, who is also a senior academic professional in the School of Physics. The Georgia Tech Observatory will not be open because the field of view of its telescope “is just a small area of the moon,” he adds.

The eclipsed moon will be the second full moon in January, so it qualifies as a “blue moon,” Sowell says, although its color will not be blue. It will also be a “blood moon” because the red part of the sunlight’s spectrum will illuminate Earth’s satellite, but the redness would be visible only during totality.

The eclipse barely misses occurring when the moon’s orbit brings the moon closest to Earth. “When the moon is at its closest, it should appear a little larger in the sky.” That happens on Tuesday, Jan. 30.

February 1, 2018

Amyloids are abnormal proteins that aggregate into fibrils, causing dreadful human diseases. They are strongly implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, a leading cause of dementia in elderly people. Mad cow disease, a neurodegenerative disease, results from infection by prions, which are amyloids that can spread between cells and organisms.  

Despite voluminous research on amyloids and prions, researchers still cannot explain how harmless, normal protein sequences go awry and assume the deadly amyloid shape.

“The initial amyloid ‘nucleation’ is extremely difficult to investigate in animal models,” says Yury Chernoff, a professor in the School of Biological Sciences. “To begin with, initial nucleation is extremely rare. We have no idea where the initial amyloid ‘nucleus’ comes from and what promotes its formation. And then accumulation of an amyloid to detectable levels takes a very long time.”

For these reasons, Chernoff’s Georgia Tech team and collaborators in Germany and Russia (St. Petersburg State University, where Chernoff also directs a research group) turned to yeast as a model to study the human amyloids. They published their findings in the Journal of Biological Chemistry in early January 2018.

According to Chernoff, yeast also form prions, and the initial nucleation of a yeast prion is also rare. “However,” he says, “it is easier to detect prion nucleation in yeast that in humans, because it is possible to analyze large numbers of yeast cells, and because yeast prions cause easily detectable traits.”

The researchers fused mammalian amyloid-forming proteins to the yeast prion-forming protein. They found that the resulting chimeric proteins nucleate an amyloid state in yeast much more frequently than yeast prion-forming protein does on its own. “Because the resulting amyloid nucleus further converts a normal yeast protein,” Chernoff says, “amyloid formation could be detected by the appearance of an easily observable trait, such as growth on specific medium.”

The researchers successfully applied the method to several proteins, including amyloid beta (associated with human Alzheimer’s disease), PrP (associated with mad cow disease), alpha synuclein (associated with Parkinson’s disease), and amylin (associated with type II diabetes).

“This assay opens a wide window to the early stages of dreadful human diseases caused by abnormal protein aggregation,” Chernoff says. “The more we understand how these diseases originate, the better we can develop treatments.”

Beyond revealing how human proteins undergo amyloid nucleation, Chernoff says, the assay will help researchers discover factors affecting amyloid nucleation in cells, find agents that favor the development of diseases, and identify treatments and conditions that can prevent the triggering cause of a disease.

Chernoff’s Georgia Tech team working on this project included current  Ph.D. student Pavithra Chandramowlishwaran and former Ph.D. student Meng Sun, who are co-first authors on the paper, as well as undergraduate researcher Kristin Casey and research scientist Andrey Romanyuk.

Figure Caption
Growth of the specially designed yeast strain on a specific medium enables researchers to detect nucleation of disease-related fibrils by human amyloid beta protein, associated with Alzheimer’s disease.

This work was supported by grants from the National Institute of Aging, NIH (through Emory University’s Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center) and the Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Foundation, as well as the Russian Science Foundation and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (to the St. Petersburg group).  

February 4, 2018

There are vast, invisible, churning communities of organisms living all around and inside every living thing on Earth, overwhelmingly outnumbering us. We can’t see them, but their influence is profound – their processes can connect us, sustain us, protect us, or destroy us.

They are the bacteria, fungi, viruses and other microbes that comprise the world’s many microbiomes, which were the focus of this year’s Suddath Symposium (Jan. 30-31) at the Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience at the Georgia Institute of Technology.

“A microbiome is, generally, the collection of interacting microbes in a particular location, and the locations vary in scale,” said Brian Hammer, associate professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Biological Sciences and a Petit Institute researcher.

Hammer and Frank Stewart, also a Petit Institute researcher, were co-chairs of what may have been the best-attended Suddath Symposium in the event’s 26-year history. Every session, for all 12 speakers, featured standing-room crowds in the Suddath Room, in addition to people watching the simulcast in the Petit Institute atrium, and across campus – symposium seating was sold out before the early registration deadline, in early January.

It was an opportunity to showcase work being done at Georgia Tech and across the country and the attendance reflected growing and diverse interest in microbial science.

“Over the last five years or so, the importance of and interest in microbial science at Georgia Tech has really increased,” said Stewart, associate professor in the School of Biological Sciences. “We’ve added faculty, resources, the field is growing. All of those things are coming together right now.”

 

Microbes Are Popular

The topic of microbiomes has infiltrated public consciousness – this is a popular subject, Hammer said. “You’ll see microbiome research in high profile journals every week now, it’s one of those things that’s made it into the mainstream. You go home and your parents are starting to ask about these things. Everybody seems to care about their microbiomes, and we’re all trying to figure out how these things work, and we’re right at the forefront here at Tech.”

The interest, like the science, is deep and wide. For instance, there’s a lot of research into the microbiomes of the human gut and lungs, much of it fueled by initiatives like the ongoing NIH Human Microbiome Project. Meanwhile, there’s the Earth Microbiome Project, across ecologies and habitats and environments.

“There are so many scales, some more narrowly focused, some broader, and we tried to reflect that range of interest in this symposium,” Hammer said.

The symposium, which was entitled, “The Chemical Ecology of Microbiome Interactions,” presented research unified by the goal of understanding microbe-microbe and microbe-host interactions, spanning diverse specialties, including biomedicine and genomics, chemical ecology, biogeochemical cycling, environmental science, biophysics, and the evolution of microbial interactions, including those involving pathogens.

 

Two Days of Brain Candy

Accordingly, the symposium drew speakers who are among the nation’s thought leaders in both environmental and human microbiome research (including several from Georgia Tech), presenting their research over, “two days of brain candy,” which is how Bonnie Bassler of Princeton University described the gathering.

“It was a thrill,” said Bassler. “There was such a diverse range of science discussed, and every speaker still made sure that everyone understood their talks, which is remarkable when you consider the range of topics.”

As tradition demands, the two-day symposium began with a research presentation from the grad student who was named the Suddath Award winner during the Petit Institute holiday party back in December. These presentations often have little connection with the symposium theme. This year, David Hanna, a doctoral candidate in the lab of Petit Institute researcher Amit Reddi, presented his research, entitled, “Shedding Light on Heme Signaling Networks with Heme Sensors and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry.”

Then it was all about the many interactions of very tiny things, the contact and communication between microbes. Bassler, who was Hammer’s postdoctoral advisor, led off the microbiome presentations on Tuesday with a talk entitled, "Bacterial Quorum Sensing and its Control."

Bassler is a wet lab microbiologist, said Hammer, and she was followed by a who’s who list of microbial researchers from beyond the Georgia Tech campus. On Tuesday, Jon Clardy, a chemical biologist from Harvard University, spoke on, “Microbiomes, Chemical Ecology, and Animal Development.” Seth Bordenstein, a classically trained evolutionary biologist from Vanderbilt University, delivered a presentation that asked, “How do Microbes Form Relationships With Animals?”

Tuesday’s sessions ended with a presentation from Mary Voytek, a microbiologist who heads up NASA’s Astrobiology Program, that really took the subject to far out places – like, deep onto our solar system, to the moons of Jupiter and Saturn and the search for life beyond Earth, with a talk entitled, “How can Microbiomes Serve as a Model for the Emergence and Early Evolution of Life.”

“Mary is very interested in how microbial systems that we can study on Earth might inform our understanding of how life might look on other planets,” said Stewart.

Mary Ann Moran from the University of Georgia led off Wednesday with her talk, “Chemical Currencies of the Ocean Microbiome,” followed by Tim Read from the Emory School of Medicine, and his presentation, “Pathogen Genomic Variation in the Context of a Human Microbiome.”

Rebecca Vega Thurber from Oregon State University who has focused much of her research on coral systems in the oceans, delivered a presentation entitled, “The Roles of Environmental Nitrogen in Coral Microbiome Dysbiosis and Disease.”

Karine Gibbs, the second speaker from Harvard and the final presenter from outside Georgia Tech, stressed the importance of contact-dependent interactions in her talk, “Know Thy Neighbors: The Influences of Self/Non-Self Recognition on the Collective Migration of a Bacterial Population.”

Gibbs, said Hammer, “was one of the pioneers that figured out bacteria have ways to discriminate self from non-self, and use that information to organize microbial communities.”

Civics at the microscale? No, not quite. But Gibbs, who has observed wholesale warfare between microbial armies, is working with her lab to develop models that clarify the differences between lethal and non-lethal contact dependent interactions. “The predominant theory in microbiology is that all of these interactions would be about death,” Gibbs said. “Our evidence shows that’s not the case.”

 

Tech Researchers Take Stage

A quartet of Georgia Tech researchers also took research center stage – or, center projection screen – during the two-day symposium.

Neha Garg, assistant professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, gave a talk on Tuesday entitled, “Chemical Chatter between the Cystic Fibrosis-associated Microbiome.” She’s one of the new microbiology-focused faculty members at Georgia Tech, arriving last year following her postdoctoral work at the University of California-San Diego.

“She’s studying the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis, trying to understand the nature of the chemical compounds that organisms use to interact with other micro-organisms, or a host,” Hammer said.

While most researchers engaged in this area would typically remove the organisms that cause a bacterial infection in a cystic fibrosis patient, and study them in a petri dish, Garg has developed a method to study all of the bacterial chemicals in an infected lung, based on their DNA.

“She’s doing it spatially, building a three-dimensional map of the infected lung,” Hammer said. “She’s taking the research to the next level.”

The other three Georgia Tech researchers were part of the Wednesday lineup.

Joel Kostka, professor and associate chair of research in the School of Biological Sciences, delivered a talk called, “The Sphagnum Phytobiome: Ecosystem Engineers of the Global Carbon Cycle.”

“Joel is one of the leaders in thinking about microbes in real world environmental settings, which are often quite diverse,” Stewart said. “He studies systems ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic. He combines a wide range of approaches in thinking about the system holistically.”

Petit Institute researcher James Gumbart, from the School of Physics, talked about, “Molecular Mechanisms of Nutrient Acquisition and Virulence Revealed by Molecular Dynamics Simulations.”

Gumbart is one of that breed of physicist who calls himself a ‘squishy,’ according to Hammer. “They work in ‘squishy physics.’ His expertise is in using mathematical simulations to look at these molecular machines that bacteria use to interact with one another,” Hammer said.

The last speaker of the symposium was Marvin Whiteley, a professor in the School of Biology and the Emory School of Medicine, whose talk was entitled, “Biogeography of in vivo Biofilms.”

Like Hammer, Whiteley was trained as a classical bacterial geneticist, “which is, you take an organism and dissect it at the level of DNA to figure out how it’s capable of accomplishing certain tasks,” Hammer said. “Marvin has transitioned in the last 10 to 15 years to focusing on the organism that causes disease in cystic fibrosis patients.”

At some point, Whiteley’s work in cystic fibrosis as a geneticist would ideally dovetail with Garg’s work in the same disease as a chemist. That isn’t by accident.

“That’s an example of complementary expertise that Georgia Tech is bringing together,” Hammer said. And it gets to the heart of the reason for this topic at this symposium at this time. “We’ve reached a stage now where these interactions are allowing us to move the science forward in ways we weren’t able to at Georgia Tech until fairly recently. We think we’re at a turning point.”

Microbiology, the study of the smallest living organisms, is playing an increasingly expanded role in the further understanding of life, and how it evolves, thrives, or doesn’t. As she left to catch a plane back to Boston, Gibbs thought about the two days of multifaceted brain candy, and its impact on her.

“This was an amazing community of science,” she said. “The breadth of it! This was a nice reflection of the dynamics that are in place right now in microbiology, and I think it helped illustrate how microbes, whether we like it or not, are integral to so many aspects of our lives and our living planet.”

 

December 17, 2018

Basic research by Georgia Tech and KAUST researchers to understand the electronic behavior of perovskites is the cover feature of the Dec. 11, 2018, issue of Chemistry of Materials. The work is by School of Chemistry and Biochemistry Professor Jean-Luc Brédas and collaborators led by Omar Mohammed at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), in Saudi Arabia.

“Layer-Dependent Rashba Band Splitting in 2D Hybrid Perovskites” was published online in October. It details fundamental studies to understand the spin-orbit coupling in perovskites due to the presence of heavy atoms.

Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites have attracted attention because of their promising properties for optoelectronic devices such as solar cells, light-emitting diodes, photodetectors, and scintillators. The work advances the development of perovskites for spintronic applications.

From July 2014 to 2016, while on leave from Georgia Tech, Brédas served as Distinguished Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at KAUST, as well as director of the KAUST Solar Center

December 13, 2018

Editor's Note. This story was published originally by the Scheller School of Business on Dec. 12, 2018. It has been adapted for the College of Sciences.

Georgia Tech’s Carbon Reduction Challenge (CRC), a program that helps students design and implement large-scale projects to save energy, received two first-place awards at the 2019 Reimagine Education Conference & Awards in San Francisco. The international competition spotlights innovative initiatives aimed at enhancing student learning outcomes and employability across five disciplines and 17 categories.

The CRC is co-directed by College of Sciences Professor and Georgia Tech Global Change Program Director Kim Cobb and Scheller College of Business Professor and Ray C. Anderson Center for Sustainable Business (“Center”) Faculty Director Beril Toktay. The CRC pairs teams of undergraduate students with a diverse set of local organizations to identify opportunities for large-scale energy efficiency gains that will save greenhouse gas emissions and deliver significant energy cost savings.

This year’s competition received 1,184 project submissions from 39 countries. Submissions were evaluated by 160 international judges. The CRC won first place in the “Sustainability” category as well as first place in the “Natural Sciences” discipline. It was also selected as one of ten finalists to advance to the Grand Finale.

The CRC began as a class project that Cobb initiated in 2007. In 2017, it was expanded to include co-op and internship students across Georgia Tech in collaboration with Toktay and with funding from the Ray C. Anderson Foundation’s NextGen Committee and the Scheller College of Business Dean’s Innovation Fund. It also became an affiliated project of the Georgia Tech Serve-Learn-Sustain initiative.

In 2018, the CRC expanded its reach by inviting Emory University students to participate as well. The CRC became an official activity of the Georgia Climate Project, a statewide, multi-year effort to improve understanding of climate impacts and solutions across the state and to encourage Georgia residents to take effective, science-based climate action. CRC projects launched since 2017 have already resulted in over two million pounds of avoided CO2 emissions and are projected to deliver hundreds of thousands of dollars in avoided energy costs to partner organizations. Finalists present their projects at a public poster expo, and judges score projects to decide the winners who receive cash prizes thanks to a gift from the Sheth Family Foundation.

Reimagine Education is sponsored in part by the Alfred West Jr. Learning Lab of the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania.

December 12, 2018

They chose to study at Georgia Tech. Once here, they discovered that the academic rigor and leading-edge science research they’ve heard so much about is true – and demands their best. Some found Tech overwhelming at times, but all succeeded.

Whether their journey started in Georgia, in another state, or in another country, our graduates discovered something else in the heart of Atlanta: the Tech experience, which involves forming new and lasting friendships, stretching out of their comfort zones, becoming part of the Georgia Tech family, and more.

Meet five graduating students from the College of Sciences. Headed in various directions—in the U.S. or overseas—each feels well-prepared for the next step in their professional life because of their Georgia Tech education. Georgia Tech helped them achieve their goals and join a larger community, one that values friendship and collaboration, as well as scholarship.

Meet five of the College of Sciences' Fall 2018 graduates:

Congratulations, Fall 2018 graduates! We can't wait to see what comes next for you! The world awaits you. 

December 11, 2018

Georgia Tech researchers have expanded the synthetic value of the common building block dihydroxyfumaric acid (DHF). The diester derivative of DHF has been used exclusively as an electron-seeking (electrophilic) reagent in organic synthesis.

Research by George Ward, in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, has expanded the scope of DHF chemistry by using it as a nucleus-seeking (nucleophilic) player in organic reactions in the presence of bases. Ward is a Ph.D. student of Stefan France, an associate professor of chemistry and member of the Parker H. Petit Institute of Bioengineering and Bioscience. They collaborated with Charles Liotta, professor of chemistry, and Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy, of The Scripps Research Institute, in La Jolla, California. 

The newly unleashed reactivity of the well-known reagent opens alternative routes to complex building blocks needed to prepare pharmaceutically relevant compounds. The researchers demonstrated the versatility of nucleophilic DHF in the synthesis of C-veratroylglycol – an expensive, bioactive naturally occurring compound – in one step from vanillin.

 The work was published online in September in The Journal of Organic Chemistry and is featured in the journal’s December 2018 issue.

The work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the NASA Astrobiology Program under the NSF Center for Chemical Evolution (CHE-1504217).

December 10, 2018

Nemo, the adorable clownfish in the movie Finding Nemo, rubs himself all over the anemone he lives in to keep it from stinging and eating him like it does most fish. That rubbing leads the makeup of microbes covering the clownfish to change, according to a new study.

Having bacterial cooties in common with anemones may help the clownfish cozily nest in anemones’ venomous tentacles, a weird symbiosis that life scientists - including now a team from the Georgia Institute of Technology - have tried for decades to figure out. The marine researchers studied how populations of microbes shifted on clownfish who mixed and mingled with fish-killing anemones.

“It’s the iconic mutualism between a host and a partner, and we knew that microbes are on every surface of each animal,” said Frank Stewart, an associate professor in Georgia Tech’s School of Biological Sciences. “In this particular mutualism, these surfaces are covered with stuff that microbes love to eat: mucus.”

Swabbing mucus 

Clownfish and anemones swap lots of mucus when they rub. So, the researchers brought clownfish and anemones together and analyzed the microbes in the mucus covering the fish when they were hosted by anemones and when they weren’t.

“Their microbiome changed,” said Zoe Pratte, a postdoctoral researcher in Stewart’s lab and first author of the new study. “Two bacteria that we tracked in particular multiplied with contact with anemones.”

“On top of that, there were sweeping changes,” said Stewart, the study’s principal investigator. “If you looked at the total assemblages of microbes, they looked quite different on a clownfish that was hosted by an anemone and on one that was not.” 

The researchers chased 12 clownfish in six fish tanks for eight weeks to swab their mucus and identify microbes through gene sequencing. They published their results in the journal Coral Reefs. The research was funded by the Simons Foundation

Questions and Answers

Here are some questions and answers about the experiment, which produced some amusing anecdotes, along with fascinating facts about anemones and clownfish. For example, fish peeing on anemones makes the latter stronger. Clownfish change genders. And it was especially hard to catch one fish the researchers named “Houdini.”

Does this solve the mystery about this strange symbiosis?

No, but it’s a new approach to the clownfish-anemone conundrum.

“It’s a first step that’s asking the question, ‘Is there part of the microbial relationship that changes?’” Stewart said. The study delivered the answer on the clownfish side, which was “yes.”

An earlier hypothesis on the conundrum held that clownfish mucus was too thick to sting through. Current ideas consider that mucus swapping also covers the clownfish with anemone antigens, i.e. its own immune proteins, or that fish and fish killer may be exchanging chemical messages.

“The anemone may recognize some chemical on the clownfish that keeps it from stinging,” Stewart said. “And that could involve microbes. Microbes are great chemists.”

Going forward, the researchers want to analyze mucus chemistry. They also don’t yet know to what extent the microbes on the fish change because of bacteria the fish gleans from the anemone. It’s possible the fish mucus microbiome just develops differently on the fish due to the contact.

What do anemones normally do to fish?

Kill them and eat them. 

“The anemone evolved to kill fish. It shoots little poison darts into the skin of a fish to kill it then pull it into its mouth,” Stewart said. “The clownfish gets away with living right in that.”

By the way, the tentacles are not harmful to people.

“If you touch an anemone, it feels like they’re sucking on your finger,” Pratte said. “Their little harpoons feel like they’re sticking to you. It doesn’t hurt.”

What do the anemones and clownfish get out of the relationship?

For starters, they protect each other from potential prey. But there’s lots more. Some clownfish even change genders by living in an anemone.

“When they start being hosted, the fish make a big developmental switch,” Stewart said. “The first fish in a group that establishes itself in an anemone in the wild transitions from male to female, grows much bigger and becomes the dominant member of the group.”

She is then the sole female in a school of smaller male mates.

Anemones appear to grow larger and healthier, partly because the clownfish urinate on them.

“When the fish pee, algae in the anemone take up the nitrogen then secrete sugars that feed the anemone and make it grow,” Pratte said. “Sometimes the fish drop their food, and it falls into the anemone which eats it.”

Any fun anecdotes from this experiment? 

Plenty: It was scientifically straightforward but laborious to carry out, partly because the researchers were taking meticulous care of the fish at the same time.

“You have to get fish and anemones to pair up, and the fish can host in other places, like nooks in the rock,” Pratte said.

“Clownfish are smarter than other fish, so they’re harder to catch, especially when we want to minimize stress on the animals,” said Alicia Caughman, an undergraduate research assistant in the School of Biological Science’s Fast Track to Research program. “We named one fish ‘Houdini.’ He could wiggle between nets and tight spaces and usually outsmart whoever was trying to catch him."

“We also had 'Bubbles,' who blew a lot of bubbles, 'Biggie' and 'Smalls,' 'Broad,' 'Sheila,' 'Earl,' and 'Flounder,' who liked to flounder (flop around),” Pratte said. Clownfish have differing sizes and details in their stripes, which allow people to tell them apart.

The anemone side of the microbial question may prove harder to answer because for all Houdini's wiles, anemones, which are squishy non-vertebrates, are even more trying. They can squeeze into uncomfortable niches or plug up the aquarium drainage, and they also have temperamental microbiomes.

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Also READ: When boy fish build castles to impress girl fish, boy genes get a rise

Also READ: Teeny bacteria do a dirty job to clean a huge fish tank

The following researchers coauthored the paper: Nastassia V. Patin, Mary E. McWhirt and Darren J. Parris, all of Georgia Tech. DOI: 10.1007/s00338-018-01750-z. The research was funded by the Simons Foundation (award 346253). Any findings, opinions or recommendations are those of the authors and not necessarily of the Simons Foundation.

Media relations assistance: Ben Brumfield (404) 660-1408, ben.brumfield@comm.gatech.edu

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Writer: Ben Brumfield

December 7, 2018

Major Scientific Society's Decision to Honor Anti-Environment Senator Sparks Outcry
Earther
November 6, 2018

Members of the American Geophysical Union (AGU) are up in arms over the organization’s decision to give a prestigious award to Senator Cory Gardner, who in 2015 voted against ameasure declaring human activity “significantly contributes to climate change.”

The School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences' Kim Cobb is leading the charge to challenge the AGU's decision. "It really becomes an issue of integrity," she told Earther.

December 7, 2018

"We Had to Go": The Threat of Worse Hurricanes Forced These Panama City Residents Out
VICE News
December 5, 2018

After Hurricane Michael, residents of the Panhandle say the prospect of even more intense storms, and the subsequently difficult recoveries, made them want to leave. Hurricane Michael slammed the Gulf Coast with $30 billion in combined economic losses, including storm damage. And it resulted in the loss of 9,300 jobs. 

“This is going to take time, and it’s not going to be easy to come to solutions here,” said Kim Cobb of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, "Slowly but surely Mother Nature is going to remind us that our entire economy is on the line.”

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