December 5, 2018

In February 2016, astronomers shook the scientific world with the announcement that they had observed gravitational waves from a cataclysmic event in the distant universe — the collision of two massive black holes, celestial objects so dense that not even light can escape from them. 

Gravitational waves, hard-to-see ripples in the fabric of space-time, had been predicted by Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity in 1915. These gravitational waves carry information about their origins, potentially offering a new way to observe the cosmos. Three years ago, however, researchers didn’t know if this first observation was merely an anomaly or part of a widespread phenomenon that could teach us about the population of black holes in the universe.

A dozen Georgia Tech faculty members, postdoctoral researchers, and students participated with hundreds of other researchers in the National Science Foundation-sponsored LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) Scientific Collaboration that reported the first gravitational waves. After the announcement, the work continued, and scientists from around the world have now observed 10 black hole collisions and a merger of two binary neutron stars using LIGO and the European-based Virgo gravitational wave detector. 

Catalog of Coalescing Cosmic Objects

The records of these cataclysmic cosmic events, including four black hole observations disclosed for the first time, have been collected into a catalog released December 1 at the Gravitational Wave Physics and Astronomy Workshop held in College Park, Maryland. Production of the catalog suggests that gravitational wave astronomy will indeed offer astronomers a new way to view the secrets of the universe.

“The individual black hole detections previously announced allow us to confirm, after many years of searching, that gravitational wave astronomy is a feasible endeavor,” said James Alexander Clark, a research scientist in Georgia Tech’s Center for Relativistic Astrophysics (CRA) in the School of Physics and a member of the LIGO collaboration. “We now know that pairs of massive black holes exist and collide frequently enough for us to detect gravitational waves within a human lifetime. We also know that the instruments and analysis procedures we use are capable of detecting and characterizing gravitational wave sources and we have been able to start probing some basic features of the theory of general relativity.”

Astronomers do not have the luxury of repeating laboratory experiments to build confidence in their findings, Clark pointed out. “Instead, we rely on observing large samples of objects and phenomena spread throughout the universe. By building a ‘census’ of this population, we are rapidly learning more about how common these objects are, what their general properties are like, and about the diversity of black holes in the universe.”

Expanding the Observations

That census should expand more rapidly starting in April 2019 when LIGO begins its next observing run. The two instruments, one in Livingston, Louisiana, and the other in Hanford, Washington, are shut down periodically for upgrades to improve sensitivity. “By observing a larger sample of binary black hole sources, we are more likely to find systems with more extreme configurations that allow more stringent tests of our models — and of general relativity,” Clark added.

The new Gravitational Wave Catalog shows that gravitational waves from powerful cosmic phenomena arrive at the Earth almost once every 15 days of observation, noted Karan Jani, a postdoctoral fellow in the CRA and also a member of the LIGO collaboration. “Future releases will provide much stronger tests of Einstein’s theory of gravity, and help provide a better understanding of how black holes are formed in the universe.”

Data collected on the 10 black hole mergers describe objects that are as much as 100 times more massive than our own sun. Among the reports is a July 29, 2017, signal that represents the most distant, most energetic, and most massive black hole collision detected so far. That collision happened about five billion years ago — even before the birth of our sun — and released an amount of energy equivalent to converting almost five solar masses to gravitational radiation.

What We Learn from Black Hole Observations

Black holes are among the few objects in the universe massive and dense enough to produce gravitational waves that can be measured, said Sudarshan Ghonge, a CRA graduate student and also a member of the collaboration. But those measurements can be quite worthwhile.

“These waves have signatures that depend on the properties of the black holes from which they originated,” he said. “By measuring these waves, we can infer the masses, spin, sky location, and distance from us. It’s similar to how you can listen to a sound and roughly figure out where it’s coming from, how far away it is, and what’s causing it.”

LIGO works by observing infinitesimally small changes caused by gravitational waves passing through the Earth. The changes affect laser beams traveling through twin four-kilometer arms of the L-shaped observatories. The Hanford and Livingston facilities, separated by 1,865 miles, confirm the observations, as both facilities should detect the waves. Additional information comes from the Virgo facility in Italy.

Observing Runs Produce New Records 

From September 12, 2015, to January 19, 2016, during the first LIGO observing run since undergoing upgrades in a program called Advanced LIGO, gravitational waves from three binary black hole mergers were detected. The second observing run, which lasted from November 30, 2016, to August 25, 2017, yielded one binary neutron star merger and seven additional binary black hole mergers, including the four new gravitational wave events reported December 1. The new events are known as GW170729, GW170809, GW170818 and GW170823, in reference to the dates they were detected.

GW170814 was the first binary black hole merger measured by the three-detector network made possible by collaboration between LIGO and Virgo, and allowed for the first tests of gravitational wave polarization, which is analogous to light polarization. 

One of the new events, GW170818, detected by the global network formed by the LIGO and Virgo observatories, was very precisely pinpointed in the sky. The position of the binary black holes, located 2.5 billion light-years from Earth, was identified in the sky with a precision of 39 square degrees. That makes it the next-best localized gravitational wave source after the GW170817 neutron star merger.

The event GW170817, detected three days after GW170814, represented the first time that gravitational waves were observed from the merger of a binary neutron star system. What's more, this collision was seen in gravitational waves and light, marking an exciting new chapter in multi-messenger astronomy, in which cosmic objects are observed simultaneously in different forms of radiation.

Advancing Gravitational Wave Observation

“The release of four additional binary black hole mergers further informs us of the nature of the population of these binary systems in the universe and better constrains the event rate for these types of events,” said Caltech’s Albert Lazzarini, deputy director of the LIGO Laboratory.

"In just one year, LIGO and Virgo working together have dramatically advanced gravitational wave science, and the rate of discovery suggests the most spectacular findings are yet to come,” said Denise Caldwell, director of NSF's Division of Physics. "The accomplishments of NSF's LIGO and its international partners are a source of pride for the agency, and we expect even greater advances as LIGO's sensitivity becomes better and better in the coming year."

"The next observing run, starting in Spring 2019, should yield many more gravitational wave candidates, and the science the community can accomplish will grow accordingly,” said David Shoemaker, spokesperson for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and senior research scientist in MIT’s Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research. “It’s an incredibly exciting time.” 

“It is gratifying to see the new capabilities that become available through the addition of Advanced Virgo to the global network,” said Jo van den Brand of Nikhef (the Dutch National Institute for Subatomic Physics) and VU University Amsterdam, who is the spokesperson for the Virgo Collaboration. “Our greatly improved pointing precision will allow astronomers to rapidly find any other cosmic messengers emitted by the gravitational wave sources.” The enhanced pointing capability of the LIGO-Virgo network is made possible by exploiting the time delays of the signal arrival at the different sites and the so-called antenna patterns of the interferometers.

The scientific papers describing these new findings, which are being initially published on the arXiv repository of electronic preprints, present detailed information in the form of a catalog of all the gravitational wave detections and candidate events of the two observing runs as well as describing the characteristics of the merging black hole population. Most notably, we find that almost all black holes formed from stars are lighter than 45 times the mass of the sun. Thanks to more advanced data processing and better calibration of the instruments, the accuracy of the astrophysical parameters of the previously announced events increased considerably.  

Added Georgia Tech professor Laura Cadonati, deputy spokesperson for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, “These new discoveries were only made possible through the tireless and carefully coordinated work of the detector commissioners at all three observatories, and the scientists around the world responsible for data quality and cleaning, searching for buried signals, and parameter estimation for each candidate — each a scientific specialty requiring enormous expertise and experience.”

About LIGO and Virgo

LIGO is funded by NSF and operated by Caltech and MIT, which conceived and built the project. Financial support for the Advanced LIGO project was led by the NSF with Germany (Max Planck Society), the United Kingdom (Science and Technology Facilities Council) and Australia (Australian Research Council-OzGrav) making significant commitments and contributions to the project. More than 1,200 scientists from around the world participate in the effort through the LIGO Scientific Collaboration. A list of additional partners is available at http://ligo.org/partners.php.

The Virgo Collaboration consists of more than 300 physicists and engineers belonging to 28 different European research groups: six from Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in France; 11 from the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Italy; two in the Netherlands with Nikhef; the MTA Wigner RCP in Hungary; the POLGRAW group in Poland; Spain with IFAE and the Universities of Valencia and Barcelona; two in Belgium with the Universities of Liege and Louvain; Jena University in Germany; and the European Gravitational Observatory, the laboratory hosting the Virgo detector near Pisa in Italy, funded by CNRS, INFN and Nikhef. A list of the Virgo Collaboration can be found at http://public.virgo-gw.eu/the-virgo-collaboration/. More information is available on the Virgo website at www.virgo-gw.eu.

Research News
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Media Relations Contact: John Toon (404-894-6986) (jtoon@gatech.edu).

Writer: LIGO Scientific Collaboration / John Toon

December 5, 2018

Humans will soon embark on a detailed characterization of habitable planets beyond the solar system. Space-based telescopes probing the atmospheres of small planets around nearby stars will shortly be joined by ground-based observatories. What should these instruments be looking for?

Christopher Reinhard, an assistant professor in the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, aims to define the atmospheric chemistries that provide strong evidence for the presence of life at a planet’s surface – or atmospheric biosignatures. He recently received a three-year grant from NASA’s Exobiology Program to develop a model of Earth’s early atmosphere and ocean, about 4 billion years ago, when the planet was devoid of oxygen.

Joining Reinhard on this research is a multi-institutional team, including co-principal investigators Shawn Domagal-Goldman of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Andrew Ridgwell of the University of California, Riverside, as well as collaborators Kazumi Ozaki of the University of Tokyo and Giada Arney of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

“Our ultimate aim is to develop robust atmospheric biosignatures for future analysis of extrasolar worlds, while providing computational tools for understanding the deep past and forecasting the long-term future of Earth’s biosphere. We’re fortunate to have support from NASA to take a big step in that direction.”

In looking for life beyond our solar system, Earth “provides a powerful natural lab for examining the processes that promote the emergence and maintenance of atmospheric biosignatures,” Reinhard says. However, Earth’s current atmospheric biosignatures come from eons of interactions between microbes, the oceans, and the Earth’s evolving geology. Reinhard’s team believes the most relevant atmospheric biosignatures in the search for extraterrestrial may be those from Earth’s very early age, before photosynthesis blanketed the planet with oxygen.  

Using the NASA grant, Reinhard’s team will examine the metabolic networks that would have controlled atmospheric biosignatures on the primitive Earth. The research will be aimed at developing an “ecophysiological module” that links microbial metabolism with ocean chemistry. The module will be embedded within an ensemble of computational models of atmospheric chemistry, climate, and 3-D ocean chemistry.

“We think this research will provide significant steps forward in our predictive understanding of the links between microbial metabolism and atmospheric chemistry, and will refine our understanding of the early evolution of Earth’s biosphere,” Reinhard says. “Our ultimate aim is to develop robust atmospheric biosignatures for future analysis of extrasolar worlds, while providing computational tools for understanding the deep past and forecasting the long-term future of Earth’s biosphere. We’re fortunate to have support from NASA to take a big step in that direction.”

December 3, 2018

The Georgia Tech Algorithms, Combinatorics, and Optimization Program (ACO) has selected Chun-Hung Liu to receive the 2018 ACO Outstanding Student Prize. The award recognizes academic excellence in the areas represented by ACO.

Liu’s selection is based on two major accomplishments. First, he did breakthrough research as a Ph.D. student by resolving the Robertson conjecture for topological minors, namely that graphs that do not have a Robertson chain of fixed length as a topological minor are well-quasi-ordered.

Second, Liu developed and refined parts of the classical Robertson-Seymour theory, discovering entirely new methods alongside. In addition, he is honored for displaying an exemplary attitude toward research and scholarship.

Liu received B.S. and M.S. degrees in mathematics from the National Taiwan University, in Taiwan. After completing the Georgia Tech Ph.D. program in Algorithms, Combinatorics, and Optimization in 2014, he joined Princeton University as an instructor. In 2018, he moved to Texas A&M University as an assistant professor of mathematics.

“I am very grateful to Prof. Thomas for his constant support and encouragement during my life at Georgia Tech. His professionalism, passion, and leadership undoubtedly shaped my development.”

School of Mathematics Professor Robin Thomas was Liu’s supervisor at Georgia Tech. Thomas recalls Liu as “a very strong student,” passing the comprehensive examination early and then writing four strong papers in quick succession. This achievement earned Liu the school’s Top Graduate Student Award while only in his second year.  “I expect he will become a regular invitee to Graph Theory meetings in Oberwolfach, Banff, and elsewhere,” Thomas says.

Liu says he “deeply benefited” from ACO, which he describes as a “wonderful multidisciplinary program that integrates three fascinating and active directions in an amazingly terrific way.”

Liu adds: “I am very grateful to Prof. Thomas for his constant support and encouragement during my life at Georgia Tech. His professionalism, passion, and leadership undoubtedly shaped my development.”

November 30, 2018

Scientists share the scoop on how your cat’s sandpapery tongue deep cleans
Albuquerque Journal, Nov. 30, 2018

Cat lovers know when kitties groom, their tongues are pretty scratchy. Using high-tech scans and some other tricks, scientists are learning how those sandpapery tongues help cats get clean and stay cool. The secret: Tiny hooks that spring up on the tongue – with scoops built in to carry saliva deep into all that fur.

That's the finding of research in the lab of David Hu, an associate professor in the Schools of Mechanical Engineering and of Biological Sciences. Hu is also an adjunct professor in the School of Physics.

Hu's Ph.D. student Alexis Noel, who conducted the study, is seeking a patent for a 3D-printed, tongue-inspired brush.

Read the full story here.
 

November 30, 2018

Fifteen Georgia Tech scientists have made the 2018 Highly Cited Researchers list; nine of them are affiliated with the College of Sciences:

  • Claire Berger, Physics
  • Jean-Luc Brédas, Cross-Field
  • Edward Conrad, Physics
  • Mostafa El-Sayed, Chemistry
  • Walter de Heer, Physics
  • Nga Lee (Sally) Ng, Geosciences
  • Arthur Ragauskas, Cross-Field
  • Zhong Lin Wang, Chemistry, Materials Science, Physics
  • Younan Xia, Chemistry, Materials Science, Physics

Clarivate Analytics Web of Science compiled the list, which is based on citations of papers published from 2006 to 2016. It features at least 6,000 unique authors who amassed sufficient citations to place them among the top 1% most cited in at least one of 21 subject fields.

The 2018 list is the first to identify researchers with Cross-Field impact. These researchers had substantial impact over several fields during 2006-16.

Claire Berger is a professor of the practice in the School of Physics. Her scientific interests center on nanoscience and electronic properties of graphene-based systems.

Edward Conrad is a professor in the School of Physics. He specializes in the study of surface order, thermal stability of surfaces to the formation of extended defects, and two-dimensional growth.

Jean-Luc Brédas is Regents Professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry. His group studies organic materials with promising characteristics for electronics, photonics, and information technology. Brédas is among researchers identified with Cross-Field impact.

Mostafa El-Sayed is Regents Professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry. Currently his research focuses on the use of nanoparticles in treating cancer.

Walter de Heer is Regents Professor in the School of Physics. He is renowned for research on nano-patterned epitaxial graphene and nanoclusters in beams.

Nga Lee “Sally” Ng is an associate professor with joint appointments in the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences and the School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. She studies aerosols, including their formation, life cycle, and health effects of aerosols.

Arthur Ragauskas is a professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry. His research focuses on the green chemistry of biopolymers including cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Ragauskas is among scientists identified with Cross-Field impact.

Zhong Lin Wang is Regents Professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering and an adjunct professor in the School of Chemistry and Biochemistry. Wang is one of several authors cited in three subject fields.

Younan Xia is a professor with joint appointments in the Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and the School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. Xia is widely known for seminal contributions to shape-controlled synthesis of metal nanocrystals with major impact on catalysis, plasmonics, and biomedicine. Xia is one of several authors cited in three subject fields.

Berger, El-Sayed, de Heer, Ng, Wang, and Xia were also in the 2017 list of highly cited researchers.

Other Georgia Tech researchers on the 2017 list of highly cited researchers are:

  • Ian Akyildiz, Computer Science
  • Yong Ding, Cross-Field
  • Geoffrey Ye Li, Computer Science
  • Zhiqun Lin, Cross-Field
  • Meilin Liu, Cross-Field
  • Gleb Yushin, Materials Science

November 28, 2018

What The National Climate Assessment Means For Rural, Coastal Georgia
On Second Thought, GPB
November 27, 2018

While many Americans scanned websites and superstore aisles for deals on Black Friday, and others recovered from Thanksgiving food comas, the Trump administration released a major new report on climate change.

The 1,600-page National Climate Assessment was published by the U.S. Global Change Research Program, a group of 13 federal agencies including the Department of Defense, the Environmental Protection Agency and NASA. The news inside that report is not good for a number of Georgia industries, including agriculture.

Kim Cobb, a climate scientist and director of the Global Change Project at Georgia Tech, spoke about the major takeaways from this report as well as efforts to fight climate change on Georgia's coast. Cobb is a professor in the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences.

Listen to the broadcast here.


 

November 27, 2018

Perfect stir-fried rice recipe is all a matter of maths, say scientists
MSN
November 19, 2018

The beauty of our universe is that it can be described by elegant mathematical formulas and patterns. That beauty, it seems, extends to stir-fried rice. David Hu and his team tracked the movements of the chef when stirring the rice. They called these oscillations. Based on those oscillations, they created a mathematical model that would, theoretically, make the perfect stir-fried rice. And a robot chef to program it into may not be far away. Now, who's hungry?

Hu is an associate professor in the Schools of Mechanical Engineering and of Biological Sciences and an adjunct associate professor in the School of Physics.

November 27, 2018

What an unprecedented study found about 3D printing's dangers.
Fast Company
November 19, 2018

There is no such thing as a 3D printer that doesn't emit concerning microparticles into the air, according to Rodney Weber's groundbreaking study about the dangers of 3D printing. Even industrial models that appear sealed put out measurable particles. 

But Weber warns us not to be too alarmed. The true danger is that the industry is currently unregulated, but the particles from 3D printer's aren't any different from the ones already floating around in the air.

Weber is a professor in the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences.

November 27, 2018

High-Speed Video of Cat Tongues Yields Another Reason Why They're Superior
Inverse
November 25, 2018

David Hu is at it again, this time diving deep into cat grooming  Using videos captured by high-speed cameras (about 500 frames per second), he showed that cats have a four-phase grooming regimen aided by tiny keratin spikes on their tongues, called filiform papillae.

Hu is an associate professor in the Schools of Mechanical Engineering and of Biological Sciences and an adjunct associate professor in the School of Physics.

 

November 21, 2018

Call it instinct, but something, perhaps programs in their genes, compels some animals to behave in striking ways. Take boy fish who tirelessly build sand structures to attract girl fish: Researchers have now connected gene activity with this instinctive behavior.

The scientists at the Georgia Institute of Technology and Stanford University who led the new study hope in the future to see if some behaviors are indeed genetic programs and if gene regulation is clicking off neuronal firing patterns in real time to create behavior.

“We’re not there yet, but we’re beginning to get a handle on gene regulation patterns that drive the neuronal patterns,” said Todd Streelman, professor and chair of Georgia Tech’s School of Biological Sciences and also its chair, and a researcher in the Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience. “We were able to see that there’s a clear connection between gene expression and behavior.”

Better understanding autism

The research also may contribute to a better understanding of autism because the genes behind the fish behavior have human cousins that are implicated in autism spectrum disorder. And some typical autism behaviors like “stacking,” in which a child compulsively arranges objects into neat rows or towers, have parallels in how the fish, called cichlids, repetitively pile up sand to make symmetrical formations.

But for now, the researchers explored male cichlids trying to attract a mate in Lake Malawi in Africa and found that the regulation of specific genes and associated repetitive behavior occurred nearly hand-in-glove, a novel discovery.

They published their results in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The research was funded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the National Institute on Aging, and the National Institute of General Medicine, all part of the National Institutes of Health.

Dig my castle

Let’s start with the behavior then go to the matching gene regulation:

Boy cichlids knock themselves out building stuff out of sand to impress girl fish ready to mate. Most of the cichlid species’ guys build a pit, or crater, and other species build a castle.

Both pits and castles are known as “bowers” and require the male fish to swim in the same circular way, scooping up sand in one place and spitting it out somewhere else. 

The difference is that the pit builders scoop up the sand from inside their swimming pattern and deposit it outside, leaving a hole in the middle of the bower with a raised rim surrounding it that makes the bower resemble a crater. Castle builders scoop the sand from outside the circle and deposit it inside. That creates a raised structure in the middle of the bower, making it resemble a volcano. 

Turning him on

“A switch goes on once the females become reproductively active. Suddenly, the males begin scooping and spitting thousands of times to build their structure,” said Zachary Johnson, a postdoctoral researcher in Streelman’s Lab. Johnson was a co-author on the new study and Streelman a co-principal investigator.

Scooping and spitting are so incessant that two-inch fish shovel up two-foot-wide structures: pit bowers for some species, castle bowers for others. The difference serves in attracting the right mate.

“Various species make their pits and castles in a common area, and structures have to be very specific, so the right female species can see, ‘This is the guy that I want’ compared to the other guys from other species that build the other thing. And she then has to pick the specific guy she wants from her own species,” said Chinar Patil, a co-first author of the study and a graduate research assistant in Streelman’s lab.

Cross-breeding cichlids

Now for the gene regulation part:

To observe the genes connected to either of these building behaviors, researchers have cross-mated pit-building species with castle-building species to make hybrid cichlids that have both sets of genes. These hybrids have delivered a lucky surprise.

The hybrid fish performed both behaviors neatly in sequence: first the pit making, then the castle making, always in that order.

“That’s amazing,” Johnson said. “You might expect hybrid behavior to be jumbled, or take on some intermediate form. Instead, they perform one species-specific behavior and then transition to performing the other species-specific behavior.”

Bower genes power up

This is useful to research because the hybrids have one full copy of genes from the pit parent and one from the castle parent. The cleanly separated behaviors have allowed for matching each behavior with increased and decreased activation in either set of genes in the fish’s brains.

The Georgia Tech and Stanford researchers were able to clearly match pit gene activation with pit behavioral mode as well as castle gene activation with castle behavioral mode.

“A lot of genes in the pit copy got up-regulated while the fish was in pit-making mode and the castle copy got up-regulated during castle-making mode,” Patil said. The genes and the behavior got visibly “turned on” and “tuned in” in tandem.

The difference in expression of either pit vs. castle genes was less of an absolute click-clack-on-off switch and more like inching one set of levers down on an audio mixer while tuning up the other set to a dominant level. 

Gene-behavior evolution

This was the study’s big achievement, which almost sounds like genes directly creating behavior, but that’s unconfirmed as of yet and could be the topic of future studies.

The study also brought new insights into genetic evolution in tandem with behavioral evolution, about which little is known. The genetic component may center around gene regulation in response to what’s going on in the animal’s environment in this case when females are ready to mate.

Pit making appears to be the evolutionarily older and better-established bower building behavior, and castle making is widely accepted as being the newer evolutionary development. But pit and castle species have very similar genomes, so where’s the evolutionary change?

When the team sequenced the DNA of pit and castle species, it was differences in regulatory genes that stuck out, and many up-regulated specific other genes connected to the respective bower building behaviors when mating time hit. It appeared the evolution of the regulatory genes was linked to the evolution of the behavior.

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Read MORE: On genetics of neuroscience and behavior

The following researchers also co-authored this study: Ryan York, Hunter Fraser and Russel Fernald of Stanford University; Kawther Abdilleh and Patrick McGrath of Georgia Tech; Mathew Conte of the University of Maryland; and Martin Genner of the University of Bristol. The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health’s National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (grant R01NINDS034950), the National Institute on Aging (grant R21AG050304), and National Institute of General Medicine (grants R01GM101095, 2R01GM097171-05A1, R01GM114170). Findings, conclusions, opinions, and recommendations in the material are those of the authors and not necessarily of the funding agencies.

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Media relations assistance: Ben Brumfield (404) 660-1408, ben.brumfield@comm.gatech.edu

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